Percy: the sighting, not the landingGeorge Percy; abridged by Samuel Purchas · April 26, 1607 · printed 1625
Percy: the interrupted return to the boatsGeorge Percy; abridged by Samuel Purchas · Night, April 26, 1607 · printed 1625
Paquiquineo: passage, baptism and the wish to returnEditorial paraphrase after Brendan Wolfe, Encyclopedia Virginia, and the Spanish record · 1561–1570
The turn against the mission: a mediated accountJuan Rogel, reporting Alonso de Olmos; narration paraphrased · As reported by Rogel · 1572
II · A Passage Home 1561–1566 · later testimony, from 1568
Crossings, exchanges and coerced migrationEditorial synthesis of APUSH Unit 1 evidence · Sixteenth-century Atlantic
Carrera recalls the crown’s return planJuan de la Carrera · March 1, 1600, recalling the 1560s
Smallpox and household care in Central MexicoToribio de Benavente (Motolinía) · 1541 · describing the 1520 epidemic
Two directions, unequal power: evidence guideOur editorial synthesis from the APUSH CED and cited sources · 1491–1607
Philips: weekly service and lifetime slaveryMiles Philips; collected by Richard Hakluyt · Later witness · account printed 1589
Encomienda was a claim on tribute and laborEditorial synthesis; New Laws and APUSH Unit 1 · New Spain · sixteenth century
Philips: English overseers and profitMiles Philips; collected by Richard Hakluyt · Later witness · account printed 1589
Florentine Codex, Book 12: The Conquest of Mexico, on the smallpox epidemicNahua elders of Tlatelolco, recorded by Bernardino de Sahagún and his students · c. 1555
New Laws: a decree and the problem of enforcementCharles V; modern contextual note from Fordham's sourcebook · 1542
Mexico's 1545–1548 epidemic: sequence is not diagnosisRodolfo Acuña-Soto and colleagues; our synthesis · 1545–1548
Paquiquineo in New Spain and on the failed returnBrendan Wolfe, Encyclopedia Virginia · 1562–1570
A city of canals, markets and cultivationHernán Cortés · 1520
Colonial rankings and continuing Native agencyEditorial synthesis of APUSH Unit 1 · New Spain · sixteenth century
Philips: workers seeking deliveranceMiles Philips; collected by Richard Hakluyt · Later witness · account printed 1589
III · The Bay He Couldn't Find 1565–1566
A northern fort and the hoped-for passage toward AsiaPedro Menéndez de Avilés, to Philip II · October 15, 1565
Matanzas: the governor's account of surrendered FrenchmenPedro Menéndez de Avilés, to Philip II · 1565
Don Luis's promises, as Menéndez's orders report themPedro Menéndez de Avilés; recorded by Diego de Camargo · August 1, 1566 · Fort San Mateo
What these scenes reconstructOur writers, using the cited expedition records and Jesuit accounts · Reconstructed staging
La Trinidad reaches Cádiz insteadAntonio de Abalia, to the Council of Indies · October 23, 1566
IV · No Soldiers 1570
Segura's decision and Quirós's requestBrother Juan de la Carrera · Written 1600 · events in 1570
Carrera’s remembered distrustJuan de la Carrera · March 1, 1600, recalling 1570
Alonso's Santa Elena home and service with the missionJuan Rogel, as edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero · Later relation · about 1611
V · Risen from the Dead September 1570–February 1571
The homecoming as Quirós reports itLuis de Quirós · September 12, 1570
A changed country: famine, not a faulty descriptionLuis de Quirós · September 12, 1570
An Ajacán leader: reported wishes adapted to first personOur adaptation of wishes reported by Luis de Quirós · Wishes reported 12 September 1570
Segura requests grainJuan Baptista de Segura · September 12, 1570
Generosity and the absence of exchange goodsLuis de Quirós · September 12, 1570
Departure and the destruction of the missionJuan Rogel, relaying Alonso’s testimony · August 28, 1572
Persimmons and the summons: different reportsJuan Rogel; later relation edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero · 1572
The eight men of the Ajacán missionClifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, editors; Juan de la Carrera · 1953
The chief’s care, as Rogel records itJuan Rogel, reporting Alonso · Care after February 1571
VI · The Account August 1572
The boy is sent to the fleet’s portJuan Rogel; our paraphrase · August 28, 1572
Paquiquineo’s uncle among the captivesJuan Rogel · August 28, 1572
An interpreter made in the opposite directionJuan Rogel · August 28, 1572
Intervention, denial of knowledge, and a pending punishmentJuan Rogel · August 28, 1572
Menéndez’s coercive demand as Rogel reports itJuan Rogel; our paraphrase · August 28, 1572
Later sources describe baptisms and hangingsJuan de la Carrera; Juan Rogel’s relation as edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero; our paraphrase · 1600
The absent man and the next arrivalOur synthesis from Spanish expedition records and Percy · 1572–1607
VII · Another Arrival 1606–1607
Joint-stock finance and longer economic changeOur synthesis using the AP U.S. History CED · 1491–1607
The First Charter’s Christian-possession clauseJames I, First Charter of Virginia · 10 April 1606
Choose the northwest branch for the other seaVirginia Company council; staged reading by Christopher Newport · 1606
The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional CultureHelen C. Rountree · 1989
Hospitality at KecoughtanGeorge Percy; our paraphrase · 30 April 1607 / printed 1625
The hosts insist that the guests sitGeorge Percy; staged reading · 30 April 1607 / printed 1625
A claim scoped to the evidenceOur historical synthesis · 1491–1607
AP U.S. History Scoring Guidelines: Row A (Thesis/Claim), Decision Rules and Scoring NotesCollege Board · 2026
Optional short-answer practice: what did the voyages change?Study exercise · Modern study exercise
Build a causal claim and test its limitsOur editorial synthesis · 1491–1607 · modern argument workshop
Exam Room only
United States History: AP Edition, Period 1 (Topics 1.1, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.7)John J. Newman and John M. Schmalbach · 2020
Percy: delight ashoreGeorge Percy; abridged by Samuel Purchas · April 26, 1607 · printed 1625
The English instructions name “Melindus”Virginia Company council; staged reading by Christopher Newport · 1606
Carrera’s echo: risen from the deadJuan de la Carrera · March 1, 1600, recalling 1572
Background
Instructions by way of Advice for the Intended Voyage to VirginiaThe Council for Virginia (Virginia Company of London), for the first settlers · 1606
Mexico: successive shocks, reforms and limitsEditorial synthesis of the New Laws, Nahua accounts and historical research · Mexico · 1520–1566
The log records the windDiego de Camargo, expedition secretary and notary · August 14, 1566
A river farther southDiego de Camargo, expedition secretary and notary · August 24, 1566
Carrera recalls warning Quirós, then giving him the goodsBrother Juan de la Carrera, to Bartolomé Pérez, S.J. · Written 1600 · recalling Santa Elena, 1570
A voyage supplied with four barrels of biscuitLuis de Quirós, writing with Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa · September 12, 1570
Two of four biscuit barrels consumedLuis de Quirós; our paraphrase · September 12, 1570
1570 success cannot settle the 1566 failureOur historical inference from the expedition log and the 1570 letter · 1566 and 1570
The Account: reconstruction from separate written accountsOur reconstruction from Rogel, Carrera and later edited testimony · sources 1572, 1600, c. 1611
The captive chief reports the chalice’s destinationOur adaptation of the captive chief’s statement as reported by Juan Rogel · August 28, 1572
Alonso’s reported preferenceJuan Rogel, reporting Alonso · August 28, 1572
Two accounts, different deadlinesJuan Rogel (1572) and Juan de la Carrera (1600); our comparison · August 28, 1572 / 1 March 1600
The imagined route crosses inhabited regionsOur synthesis · 1607 context
Rogel distances himself from the pilot’s shore volleyJuan Rogel · August 28, 1572
La Trinidad: a pilot, wind and a river entranceDiego de Camargo · August 24, 1566
Abalia reports the expedition's return to SpainAntonio de Abalia · October 23, 1566
Menéndez's plan and its dependence on Don LuisPedro Menéndez de Avilés · August 1, 1566 · Fort San Mateo
Regional Native diversity beneath an imagined passageOur synthesis from the APUSH CED, Monacan Indian Nation and Virginia sources · Around 1607 · modern reconstruction
A royal food order dated after the deathsPhilip II · February 19, 1571
Alonso asks for burial, in Rogel’s reportJuan Rogel, reporting Alonso · August 28, 1572
A Jesuit describes punishment and a further threatJuan Rogel · August 28, 1572
I · The Shore Has a History
April 26, 1607 → 1561
Abridged eyewitness narrative
Percy: the sighting, not the landing
George Percy; abridged by Samuel Purchas · April 26, 1607 · printed 1625
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
On screen: I · The Shore Has a History
The six and twentieth day of Aprill, about foure a clocke in the morning, wee descried the Land of Virginia:
Sourcing
Historical situation
Percy witnessed the April 26, 1607 arrival. The surviving version is Purchas's 1625 abridgment; Percy's manuscript is lost.
Intended audience
English readers of Purchas's collection of voyages, eighteen years after the landing.
Purpose
Describe the voyage, landscape and encounters from an English participant's perspective.
Point of view
An English gentleman colonist. His pleasure and danger are testimony to his experience, not evidence of the shore's emptiness or the attackers' motives. The face and delivery are reconstructed.
George Percy, 'Observations gathered out of a Discourse of the Plantation of the Southerne Colonie in Virginia by the English, 1606,' in Samuel Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes (London, 1625), part 4, book 9, chapter 2, p. 1686; archive.org purchaspilgrimes04, scan leaf n553. This is not Tyler's regularized 1907 text.
George Percy; abridged by Samuel Purchas · Night, April 26, 1607 · printed 1625
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
On screen: I · The Shore Has a History
At night, when wee were going aboard, there came the Sauages creeping vpon all foure, from the Hills like Beares, with their Bowes in their mouthes, charged vs very desperately in the faces, hurt Captaine Gabrill Archer in both his hands, and a sayler in two places of the body very dangerous. After they had spent their Arrowes, and felt the sharpnesse of our shot, they retired into the Woods with a great noise, and so left vs.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Percy witnessed the April 26, 1607 arrival. The surviving version is Purchas's 1625 abridgment; Percy's manuscript is lost.
Intended audience
English readers of Purchas's collection of voyages, eighteen years after the landing.
Purpose
Describe the voyage, landscape and encounters from an English participant's perspective.
Point of view
An English gentleman colonist. His pleasure and danger are testimony to his experience, not evidence of the shore's emptiness or the attackers' motives. The face and delivery are reconstructed.
George Percy, 'Observations gathered out of a Discourse of the Plantation of the Southerne Colonie in Virginia by the English, 1606,' in Samuel Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes (London, 1625), part 4, book 9, chapter 2, p. 1686; archive.org purchaspilgrimes04, scan leaf n553. This is not Tyler's regularized 1907 text. Two discontinuous cuts from one paragraph; each omission is marked.
Paquiquineo: passage, baptism and the wish to return
Editorial paraphrase after Brendan Wolfe, Encyclopedia Virginia, and the Spanish record · 1561–1570
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: I · The Shore Has a History; II · A Passage Home
Paquiquineo left the Chesapeake aboard a Spanish caravel in 1561; whether willingly or under compulsion is uncertain. He reached Seville in September and Madrid by late October. Philip II directed a return with Dominican missionaries; the 1562 voyage instead brought him to New Spain. Seriously ill in Mexico City, he received baptism and the viceroy's name, Don Luis de Velasco. The record reports efforts to find passage home; Fray Pedro de Feria asked the king on February 13, 1563 to keep him in New Spain. A 1566 attempted return failed; he reached the Chesapeake in 1570. These are paraphrases, not a surviving petition, royal conversation or declaration of his beliefs. The viceroy's personal presence at the baptism is not established. His face, haircut under Spanish clothing, costume and reactions are respectful reconstructions; no recorded likeness survives. The court and canal compositions do not establish specific encounters or witnesses.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Narrative facts confirmed there; unverified direct Feria and royal wording omitted.
Intended audience
Modern readers reconstructing a Native traveler's life through records made by Spanish officials and missionaries.
Purpose
Trace documented movements and institutional pressures without supplying his lost speech or private motives.
Point of view
The surviving records are mediated and often seek conversion or imperial advantage. His choices and later actions cannot be reduced to a motive we supply.
Brendan Wolfe, “Don Luís de Velasco / Paquiquineo (fl. 1561–1571),” Encyclopedia Virginia; cross-(2026-10-04), against the 1561 expense record and later mission documents. See also Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), historical introduction. No unverified Spanish wording is used as a quotation. Named mediation on screen: Carrera, Relation, March 1, 1600, L&L p. 131, on the court and return with Dominicans. Rogel relation edited by Sánchez Vaquero, c. 1611, L&L pp. 118–121, on baptism and name. The latter is later testimony and is not followed for its mistaken route or unproven personally present godfather.
Juan Rogel, reporting Alonso de Olmos; narration paraphrased · As reported by Rogel · 1572
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: I · The Shore Has a History
Rogel's letter reports that Don Luis left the Jesuits within days of their arrival and later participated with others in killing the missionaries. Rogel was not present at the killings; he reports the surviving boy's account. The opening paraphrases the documented turn against the mission and poses our question. “What happened?” is the narrator's question, not wording in Rogel. Nothing here establishes Paquiquineo's own explanation or a connection to the specific Cape Henry attack of 1607.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Rogel wrote from the Chesapeake in August 1572, after Alonso's return.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general, and the order's leadership.
Purpose
Report the mission's destruction and the situation facing the renewed Spanish expedition.
Point of view
A Jesuit author implicated in the colonial mission, relying on a surviving Spanish boy. His account is indispensable but not Paquiquineo's voice.
Juan Rogel to Francis Borgia, August 28, 1572, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (Chapel Hill, 1953), pp. 107–112, especially 109–110. Not the c. 1611 relation edited by Sánchez Vaquero.
Editorial synthesis of APUSH Unit 1 evidence · Sixteenth-century Atlantic
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
English translation by John Frampton
Compass use, ships such as caravels and navigational knowledge supported repeated Atlantic crossings; crowns and merchants pursued wealth, routes and Christian conversion. Maize and tobacco traveled from the Americas to the eastern Atlantic world; silver exports expanded commerce. Wheat, livestock and pathogens traveled west. Disease devastated Native communities, interacting with conquest, displacement and exploitation. The Columbian Exchange describes biological and human movements; silver is the accompanying commercial flow, not a pathogen or crop. Sugar plantation demand helped expand the Atlantic slave trade. Enslavement was forced migration and ownership of people, not an equal commodity exchange or the sole result of Native population loss. The comparison invitation is original teaching language. Director coverage addition: food crops from the Americas contributed to European population growth over generations; some West African rulers and merchants participated in the trade supplying European slavers. These are curriculum syntheses, not witness quotations. CED KC-1.2.I.B and KC-1.2.II.C.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A summary of the AP framework for this topic, with primary context from Philips's account and Monardes's discussion of tobacco.
Intended audience
Students comparing the different effects of Atlantic connections on rulers, merchants, colonized communities and enslaved people.
Purpose
Explain mechanisms and unequal power in both directions without invented quantities or a single-cause labor replacement story.
Point of view
Modern synthesis; not testimony that Paquiquineo witnessed a particular cargo, epidemic or plantation. Indigenous and African people also acted within and against these systems.
College Board, AP United States History Course and Exam Description, Unit 1, KC-1.2.I.A–C, II.A–C. Primary context: Miles Philips, Discourse, in Hakluyt, Goldsmid ed. (1890), vol. XIV, chapters 1 and 5. Nicolás Monardes, Joyfull Newes, trans. John Frampton (1577), fols. 34r and 40r. All our narration is adapted synthesis, not a quotation.
Juan de la Carrera · March 1, 1600, recalling the 1560s
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
… This fellow had been educated at the court of King Philip II and had received many favors from him. Finally the King sent him back to his own country, where he said he was a chief, in the company of some Dominican friars. (p. 131)
Sourcing
Historical situation
Carrera describes the royal plan to return Paquiquineo with Dominican friars.
Intended audience
Bartolomé Pérez, S.J.
Purpose
Recount Paquiquineo’s movements before the mission
Point of view
Retrospective Jesuit account. “Where he said he was a chief” is reported self-presentation, not an independent survey of political authority.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p.131.
Toribio de Benavente (Motolinía) · 1541 · describing the 1520 epidemic
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
English translation (1950 edition)
Many others died of starvation, because, as they were all taken sick at once, they could not care for each other…
Sourcing
Historical situation
A Franciscan writing after the 1520epidemic. He reached New Spain later and was not an eyewitness to its beginning.
Intended audience
Spanish Christian readers interested in New Spain and conversion.
Purpose
To recount conquest, disease and colonial suffering within a religious history.
Point of view
A missionary’s retrospective account, drawing on others’ experience. The family shown is an unnamed reconstruction, not identified witnesses.
Motolinía, History of the Indians of New Spain, chapter 1, completed 1541; Elizabeth Andros Foster translation (1950; 1973 reprint), pp. 37–44 excerpt reproduced by Virginia Tech Digital History Reader, Evidence 5. The 21-word excerpt ends with a marked omission.
Our editorial synthesis from the APUSH CED and cited sources · 1491–1607
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
Modern teaching synthesis, not a primary-source quotation. CED KC-1.2.I.B–C distinguishes new foods, mineral wealth, maritime technology and commercial organization. KC-1.2.II.A–C distinguishes epidemic disease, introduced plants and animals, Indigenous labor exploitation and the Atlantic slave trade. The Afonso I letter (1526) supplies an African ruler's opposition to kidnapping and uncontrolled slave trading. Maize and potatoes broadened Old World food supplies over time; the larger population effects studied by Nunn and Qian extend beyond 1607. Neither crop transfers nor a single voyage instantly created capitalism or equal prosperity. Indigenous tribute/labor obligations and enslavement must not be treated as interchangeable institutions.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A teaching comparison of linked but distinct changes across the Atlantic.
Intended audience
AP U.S. History students testing a causal claim.
Purpose
Ask whose gains a wealth claim describes and which mechanisms produced the costs.
Point of view
Modern synthesis; students should open the underlying sources, including Native and African accounts.
APUSH CED, Fall 2026, KC-1.2.I–II. Afonso I letter, 1526. Nunn and Qian, QJE 126 (2011), 593–650 (nunn-qian-potato-2011).
for in that countrey no Spaniard will serue one another, but they are all of them attended and serued by Indians weekly, and by Negroes which be their slaues during their life.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Philips went to New Spain after Hawkins's 1567–1568 slaving voyage and returned to England in 1582. His account first appeared in Hakluyt in 1589.
Intended audience
English readers of a collection promoting maritime knowledge and expansion.
Purpose
Describe his experiences, Spanish colonial government, labor and his own captivity and return.
Point of view
An English participant, including in a slaving voyage and supervisory labor arrangements. His criticism of Spain does not make Englishmen innocent. Period racial terms are his, retained without endorsement. He never records meeting Paquiquineo. The speaking portrait in England is reconstructed.
Miles Philips, “A discourse written by one Miles Philips Englishman,” in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation, ed. Edmund Goldsmid (Edinburgh: E. & G. Goldsmid, 1890), vol. XIV, America, part III. Project Gutenberg ebook 40803, faithful transcription of the named reprint. Chapter 5, p. 208. Cut begins at “serued” and ends at the sentence end. Philips generalizes about Spanish households; we don't endorse his “all” as a complete social census. The weekly service cannot be assigned automatically to encomienda.
Editorial synthesis; New Laws and APUSH Unit 1 · New Spain · sixteenth century
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
English translation by Henry Stevens (1893 edition)
An encomienda was a Crown grant to receive tribute and, especially in its earlier practice, labor from specified Native communities, accompanied by supposed obligations of protection and Christian instruction. It did not legally give the holder ownership of the people or their land. Coercion, abuse and exploitation were real despite that legal distinction. Indigenous slavery also existed, but was a distinct status; the 1542 New Laws prohibited new enslavement and ordered scrutiny of existing claims. Labor arrangements changed: tribute, compulsory drafts, paid work and slavery cannot all be called encomienda. Philips's weekly service describes one pattern without naming its institution. Lifetime enslavement of Africans in his account is not a synonym for every Native labor obligation, nor proof that all African residents were enslaved.
Sourcing
Historical situation
distinctions are pedagogical prose, not a purported royal quotation.
Intended audience
Students comparing colonial labor institutions and their consequences.
Purpose
Name encomienda, explain the coercive grant and separate its legal form from chattel slavery.
Point of view
Legal categories did not prevent exploitation. A law is evidence of what rulers prescribed, not proof that practice matched it.
College Board, APUSH Course and Exam Description, KC-1.2.II.B–C. New Laws of the Indies (1542), trans. Henry Stevens (London: Chiswick Press, 1893), pp. iii–xvii, excerpted by Fordham Internet Modern History Sourcebook and. We paraphrase and contextualize; we don't quote Philips as if he had named encomienda.
Afterwards many of vs were by our masters appointed to go to sundry of their Mines where they had to doe, and to be as ouerseers of the Negroes and Indians that laboured there.
In which mines many of vs did profite and gaine greatly: for first we were allowed three hundred Pezos a man for a yeere, which is threescore pound sterling
Sourcing
Historical situation
Philips went to New Spain after Hawkins's 1567–1568 slaving voyage and returned to England in 1582. His account first appeared in Hakluyt in 1589.
Intended audience
English readers of a collection promoting maritime knowledge and expansion.
Purpose
Describe his experiences, Spanish colonial government, labor and his own captivity and return.
Point of view
An English participant, including in a slaving voyage and supervisory labor arrangements. His criticism of Spain does not make Englishmen innocent. Period racial terms are his, retained without endorsement. He never records meeting Paquiquineo. The speaking portrait in England is reconstructed.
Miles Philips, “A discourse written by one Miles Philips Englishman,” in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation, ed. Edmund Goldsmid (Edinburgh: E. & G. Goldsmid, 1890), vol. XIV, America, part III. Project Gutenberg ebook 40803, faithful transcription of the named reprint. Chapter 5, p. 208. Exact cut ends after “greatly,” before the colon and explanation, marked by an ellipsis. The collective “many of vs” must not become an invented singular claim about a personal fortune or salary. His individually stated overseer position appears later in the church passage.
No longer could they walk; they only lay in their abodes, in their beds. No longer could they move, no longer could they bestir themselves, no longer could they raise themselves … Indeed many people died of them, and many just died of hunger. There was death from hunger; there was no one to take care of another; there was no one to attend to another.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Told a generation after the fall of Tenochtitlán (1521) by Nahua elders who had lived through the smallpox epidemic of 1520 and the siege, and set down in Nahuatl in the 1550s.
Intended audience
The Franciscan friar Sahagún and his Nahua student-scribes, and through them Spanish readers and the Crown.
Purpose
To preserve the Nahua account of the conquest for the friars’ own ends: to know the people they were converting, and to keep a record.
Point of view
The informants speak as survivors of the city’s fall. A Spanish friar organized and edited the project, and the Spanish text alongside the Nahuatl differs from it in places.
Text as reproduced in the Virginia Tech Digital History Reader, "Aztec Account of the First Smallpox Epidemic." Ellipsis marks our cut.
Charles V; modern contextual note from Fordham's sourcebook · 1542
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
Paraphrase. The laws ordered limits on enslavement, reviews of abusive holdings, the transfer of specified encomiendas to the Crown, and restrictions on new grants and inheritance. New Spain is explicitly addressed. The sourcebook's modern introduction notes colonial opposition, revocation of provisions and the continuation of encomienda. This is evidence of both a reform program and limits on implementation. It is not proof that every order was enforced. The Mexico timeline does not transplant the Peruvian rebellion or Andean mita into New Spain.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Royal debate about colonial abuse, Indigenous status and Crown authority.
Intended audience
Officials and subjects of the Spanish Empire.
Purpose
Regulate colonial conduct and strengthen royal oversight.
Point of view
A royal prescription; practical enforcement requires evidence beyond the decree.
The New Laws of the Indies, ed. Henry Stevens (1893), pp. iii–xvii, selections; Internet Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, text and editorial introduction.
Mexico's 1545–1548 epidemic: sequence is not diagnosis
Rodolfo Acuña-Soto and colleagues; our synthesis · 1545–1548
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
Paraphrase. Acuña-Soto and colleagues relate the 1545–1548 epidemic to reconstructed drought conditions and propose a disease mechanism. This interaction uses the epidemic's dates and the importance of ecological context, not the paper's contested diagnosis or mortality estimates. No percentage, population curve or claim that smallpox caused all later deaths is shown. The diagram is symbolic. Multiple shocks and continuing colonial demands must be distinguished before making a single-cause claim.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Modern historical epidemiology combining written records and environmental reconstruction.
Intended audience
Researchers in infectious disease and public health.
Purpose
Investigate links between drought and epidemic disease in sixteenth-century Mexico.
Point of view
A research interpretation whose diagnostic hypothesis must not become settled fact in a teaching image.
Acuña-Soto et al., 'Megadrought and Megadeath in 16th Century Mexico,' Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, no. 4 (2002), 360–362. Dates used; diagnostic hypothesis and numerical estimates not adopted.
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
Paraphrase. The stay in New Spain began with arrival near Veracruz in 1562 and illness in Mexico City. Baptism gave Paquiquineo the name Don Luis de Velasco. This does not establish that the viceroy personally stood at the font. The timeline's 1562–66 label summarizes his New Spain period; it is not evidence of continuous residence in one house or of witnessing the earlier 1520 or 1545–48 epidemics. The failed 1566 expedition and successful 1570 arrival are different voyages. Later success cannot establish the guide's earlier intention.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Reconstructing a Native man's journey through an archive largely written by Spaniards.
Intended audience
Readers of a public history encyclopedia.
Purpose
Synthesize records while explaining uncertainty about actions and motives.
Point of view
Modern biography dependent on mediated colonial records, not Paquiquineo's autobiography.
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
Cortés describes Tenochtitlán’s causeways and canoe streets, public markets, food trade and cultivated surroundings. This is a paraphrase, not quoted wording.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The Spanish expedition entered the Mexica capital in 1519. Cortés described it to Charles V in his second letter.
Intended audience
The Spanish monarch.
Purpose
To explain the expedition and justify its leader’s actions and claims.
Point of view
A conqueror describing a highly organized society while seeking royal support. His scale estimates and political claims require criticism.
Hernán Cortés, Second Letter to Charles V (1520), excerpt in Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources, vol. V (1907), pp. 317–326; electronic modernization by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Fordham Internet History Sourcebooks.
Editorial synthesis of APUSH Unit 1 · New Spain · sixteenth century
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: II · A Passage Home
Colonial ranking privileged Spanish ancestry and distinguished European, Indigenous, African and mixed-ancestry populations. Mestizo described mixed Spanish and Indigenous ancestry; status also depended on wealth, legal freedom, family and locality. This was a developing and contested hierarchy, not a fixed eighteenth-century casta painting imported into the 1560s. Neither clothing nor complexion establishes a person's legal status. Indigenous communities continued to trade, adapt institutions and practices, negotiate and resist colonial demands. Those general processes do not establish what Paquiquineo personally witnessed or why he later turned against the mission. No meeting with a named Mexican person is invented.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A summary of the AP framework for this topic; it does not treat a later caste chart as a fixed legal system.
Intended audience
Students explaining social transformation while preserving distinctions and Native agency.
Purpose
Name colonial caste ranking and its ancestry categories, then show that legal labels did not exhaust people's lives or responses.
Point of view
A modern synthesis, not an anonymous witness quotation. The silent market is reconstructed.
College Board, AP United States History Course and Exam Description, Unit 1, KC-1.2.II.D and III.A–C; no eighteenth-century casta chart or fixed hierarchy of every individual is asserted.
I Miles Philips and William Lowe were appointed to the blacke Friers, where I was appointed to be an ouerseer of Indian workmen, who wrought there in building of a new church: amongst which Indians I learned their language of Mexican tongue very perfectly, and had great familiaritie with many of them, whom I found to be a courteous and louing kind of people, ingenious, and of great vnderstanding, and they hate and abhorre the Spaniards with all their hearts, they haue vsed such horrible cruelties against them, and do still keepe them in such subiection and seruitude, that they and the Negros also doe daily lie in waite to practise their deliuerance out of that thraldome and bondage, that the Spaniards doe keepe them in.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Philips went to New Spain after Hawkins's 1567–1568 slaving voyage and returned to England in 1582. His account first appeared in Hakluyt in 1589.
Intended audience
English readers of a collection promoting maritime knowledge and expansion.
Purpose
Describe his experiences, Spanish colonial government, labor and his own captivity and return.
Point of view
An English participant, including in a slaving voyage and supervisory labor arrangements. His criticism of Spain does not make Englishmen innocent. Period racial terms are his, retained without endorsement. He never records meeting Paquiquineo. The speaking portrait in England is reconstructed.
Miles Philips, “A discourse written by one Miles Philips Englishman,” in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation, ed. Edmund Goldsmid (Edinburgh: E. & G. Goldsmid, 1890), vol. XIV, America, part III. Project Gutenberg ebook 40803, faithful transcription of the named reprint. Chapter 5, p. 214. Exact cut begins at “they and the Negros” and ends at “deliuerance”; omissions marked. This is a later church-work episode after his Inquisition sentence, not the earlier mine passage. “They” refers to the Indigenous people in his account; African people enter in the next phrase. We paraphrase his claim about seeking freedom, not a documented specific uprising or a direct Native or African statement.
…go on further to the Bay of St. Mary, which is in 37 degrees, 130 leagues beyond St. Helena, (which is the land of the Indians who are in Mexico) and build another fort, leaving in it the other 200 soldiers. This must be the key to all the fortifications in this land…
And if this arm of the sea, as is certainly believed, does go to the South Sea, it is near China, which is a very important thing as respects the enlightenment of that region and the trade with Molucca.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Writing from St. Augustine after the 1565 conflict with the French, Menéndez proposes coastal forts and a northern strategic foothold. He identifies the bay through the homeland of the Indigenous men then in Mexico.
Intended audience
Philip II, whose support and resources the governor seeks.
Purpose
To link a northern fort to imperial defense, religious expansion and Asian trade.
Point of view
The governor presents a hoped-for passage as a powerful reason for royal support. His geographic confidence is evidence of ambition, not proof that the bay leads to the Pacific or lies near China.
Menéndez, letter III to Philip II, October 15, 1565, in 'Letters of Pero Menéndez de Avilés,' trans. Henry Ware (1870) from Buckingham Smith's copies, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2nd series, 8 (1894), p. 433.
Matanzas: the governor's account of surrendered Frenchmen
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, to Philip II · 1565
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: III · The Bay He Couldn't Find
English translation (1894 edition)
Spanish and French claims to Florida combined imperial rivalry with religious conflict. Menéndez reports ordering the killing of Frenchmen who had surrendered at Matanzas Inlet.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The governor reports the destruction of the French foothold and separate killings of surrendered men at the Florida inlet in autumn 1565.
Intended audience
Philip II.
Purpose
To justify the governor's violence as service to crown and religion.
Point of view
An official explaining and defending his own conduct. We don't adopt his justification.
Menéndez to Philip II, October 15, 1565, Henry Ware translation, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2nd series, 8 (1894), pp. 428–429 and 438. Our narration is a summary, not a quotation. The September inlet surrender and killing are on p. 429; distinguish them from the capture of Fort Caroline and the later Ribault episode.
English translation by L. A. Vigneras (1969 edition)
…all the people of that territory are his friends and the vassals of his three brothers.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Orders dated at Fort San Mateo appoint Coronas to the northern expedition with Don Luis, Dominican friars and soldiers.
Intended audience
Coronas, the expedition's officers, friars and soldiers.
Purpose
To authorize a mission and establish who will govern and obey whom.
Point of view
A Spanish governor repeats claims attributed to a guide. Political terms such as vassals belong to this report.
L. A. Vigneras, 'A Spanish Discovery of North Carolina in 1566,' North Carolina Historical Review 46, no. 4 (October 1969), pp. 408–409; English translation reprinted by Encyclopedia Virginia. Contiguous final clause of the opening sentence; leading ellipsis marks the preceding text omitted.
Our writers, using the cited expedition records and Jesuit accounts · Reconstructed staging
Dramatization. Dramatized, based on the record.
On screen: III · The Bay He Couldn't Find; IV · No Soldiers
The faces, gestures, rooms, precise grouping of people and silent decisions are reconstructed. Paquiquineo is given no invented words or motive. Written sources are performed on camera with their authors and dates identified; this does not turn them into recorded conversations.
Sourcing
Historical situation
We stage the 1566 orders and failed return, then the 1570 packing at Santa Elena.
Intended audience
Students watching a sourced historical reconstruction.
Purpose
To distinguish documented decisions and words from the physical staging that makes them visible.
Point of view
Modern authors select images and cuts. Silent expressions cannot establish agreement, deception, foreknowledge or a private intention absent from the surviving record.
Scene basis: Menéndez's August 1, 1566 orders. Camargo's August 14 and 24 logs. Abalia's October 23 return report. Carrera's Relation (1600), pp. 132–133. Quirós/Segura letter (1570). The linked Carrera text supplies the packing decisions, not every depicted action.
Antonio de Abalia, to the Council of Indies · October 23, 1566
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: III · The Bay He Couldn't Find
English translation by L. A. Vigneras (1969 edition)
Abalia reports La Trinidad's arrival at Cádiz after the expedition turned away from the American coast. Don Luis, the two Dominican friars and the pilot are to continue to court. The letter attributes the return to a hurricane, as reported by those aboard.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The northern expedition has returned to Spain, with the guide it was meant to take home.
Intended audience
The Council of Indies and royal government.
Purpose
To report the vessel's arrival and forward the expedition's official papers.
Point of view
Abalia reports what he understood from arrivals and enclosed records. He did not witness the coastal navigation and supplies no admission of deliberate misdirection.
Vigneras, North Carolina Historical Review 46, no. 4 (1969), p. 414, Abalia to the Council of Indies, Cádiz, October 23, 1566; reprinted by Encyclopedia Virginia. Paraphrase, no quotation or invented order to turn the ship.
Brother Juan de la Carrera · Written 1600 · events in 1570
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: IV · No Soldiers
Carrera recalls Segura deciding to go with his religious companions without a guard of soldiers. Quirós then asks Carrera for the best and greater part of his stores, particularly church goods. After Carrera's warning, Quirós returns with authorization to receive them, and Carrera supplies the goods.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The Jesuit party makes its final preparations at Santa Elena before the northbound voyage of 1570.
Intended audience
Jesuit readers of Carrera's later relation.
Purpose
To explain the choice to proceed despite his remembered objections.
Point of view
Carrera presents himself as both a loyal supplier and an early doubter. This supports the decisions he reports; it does not supply a verbatim debate among Segura, Menéndez and Quirós.
Carrera, Relation (1600), Lewis and Loomie (1953), pp. 132–134, especially the meeting, Quirós's list and the decision to remain without soldiers. Our narration summarizes these passages; it creates no dialogue for Segura or Quirós.
… But I pointed out the difficulty in the execution of the plan, saying that the Indian did not satisfy me, and judging from what he had told me, I saw that he was a liar. (p. 132)
Sourcing
Historical situation
Carrera says he doubted the plan at Santa Elena; Paquiquineo’s own explanation does not survive.
Intended audience
Bartolomé Pérez, S.J.
Purpose
Explain Carrera’s remembered reservations
Point of view
Written30years after preparations, with knowledge of the killings. Lewis–Loomie’s “liar” renders Spanish closer to “was not dealing truthfully with him.” We identify hindsight and don't adopt the accusation. The warning was addressed to Segura.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p.132. Spanish pp.123–124.
Alonso's Santa Elena home and service with the mission
Juan Rogel, as edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero · Later relation · about 1611
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: IV · No Soldiers
The later edited relation identifies Alonso as the son of a Santa Elena colonist whom the vice-provincial took with the mission to serve Mass.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A later Jesuit account recounts the mission and identifies the surviving boy from whom much of its story was learned.
Intended audience
Jesuit and Catholic readers preserving the mission's memory.
Purpose
To recount the mission as a religious enterprise and explain the source of knowledge about its fate.
Point of view
An account written decades later and edited by another Jesuit. Its statement about Alonso's origin and role is used narrowly, without importing its other disputed details.
Rogel, Relation, as edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero, about 1607–1611, Lewis and Loomie (1953), p. 119; excerpt reprinted by Encyclopedia Virginia. Compare Carrera (1600), p. 132, which includes Alonso among the party. We give neither an exact age nor a farewell exchange.
They seemed to think that Don Luis had risen from the dead and come down from heaven, and since all who remained are his relatives, they are greatly consoled in him.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer at Havana.
Purpose
Report the mission’s circumstances and seek material support.
Point of view
The words “seemed to think” mark his inference about other people. Their hopes reach us through a Jesuit requesting aid; Paquiquineo’s pictured expression is reconstructed.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 89, paragraph 2; scan https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/89/mode/1up . The line is cut before the following conjunction; no composite translation.
We find the land of Don Luis in quite another condition than expected, not because he was at fault in his description of it, but because Our Lord has chastised it with six years of famine and death, which has brought it about that there is much less population than usual.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer at Havana.
Purpose
Report the mission’s circumstances and seek material support.
Point of view
Quirós interprets famine providentially while explicitly defending Don Luis’s earlier description. This is the missionary’s report, not independent proof of every demographic claim.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 89, paragraph 2. Exact contiguous cut ending before “which has brought it about” in the Lewis–Loomie translation. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/89/mode/1up .
An Ajacán leader: reported wishes adapted to first person
Our adaptation of wishes reported by Luis de Quirós · Wishes reported 12 September 1570
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: V · Risen from the Dead
We wish to die where our fathers died, though we have no maize. Stay here with us.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer at Havana.
Purpose
Report the mission’s circumstances and seek material support.
Point of view
An unnamed on-camera figure embodies reported collective wishes. We change grammatical person and join two reported clauses. No original Native-language words, individual name, accent or private intention is recoverable. Explicit ADAPTATION label required.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 89, paragraph 2. Underlying English: “whose leaders say that they wish to die where their fathers have died, although they have no maize” and “begging us to remain in this land with them.” Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/89/mode/1up .
send us with all speed a shipload of grain, but no other trifles
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer at Havana.
Purpose
Report the mission’s circumstances and seek material support.
Point of view
These are Segura’s own postscript words, separate from Quirós’s body and second postscript. Speaking toward a boat is staging, not a recorded conversation.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 91, paragraph 6, Segura’s postscript. Exact contiguous cut after “I must entreat you anew to”. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/91/mode/1up .
while up till now the Indians whom we met on the way would give to us from their poverty, now they are reluctant when they see they receive no trinkets for their ears of corn.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer at Havana.
Purpose
Report the mission’s circumstances and seek material support.
Point of view
Quirós calls exchange goods “trinkets”; we retain his exact wording while treating scarce Native food and expectations of reciprocity seriously.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 92, paragraph 9, Quirós’s second postscript. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/92/mode/1up .
After they arrived there, Don Luis abandoned them, since he did not sleep in their hut more than two nights nor stay in the village where the Fathers made their settlement for more than five days.
The eight dead: Juan Baptista de Segura; Luis de Quirós; Gabriel Gómez; Sancho de Zaballos; Pedro Mingot de Linares; Cristóbal Redondo; Gabriel de Solís; Juan Baptista Méndez. This list is editorial identification, not a verbatim excerpt.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate and the reprisal expedition.
Point of view
Rogel was not present at the killings. This account passes through Alonso and Jesuit reporting; documented pressures cannot establish Paquiquineo’s private motive. Rogel says no more than two nights in their hut and five days in the village. The Spanish says he went to one brother; our “relatives” does not specify a count.
Juan Rogel to Francis Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis–Loomie (1953), pp. 109–111. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/109/mode/1up . Paragraphs 6–7. The three killed on the trail and the five killed at the house died days apart; Names cross-.
Juan Rogel; later relation edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero · 1572
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: V · Risen from the Dead
The1572 letter reports that Segura sent for Don Luis twice and he did not come. The later edited relation says the Jesuits searched the woods for persimmons, and that Quirós was sent to bring Don Luis back. These statements are paraphrased, not joined into a contemporary transcript.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Accounts written after the deaths; the later relation was edited decades afterward.
Intended audience
Jesuit readers; Francis Borgia for the earlier letter
Purpose
Explain the mission’s circumstances and the sources of the narrative
Point of view
The later relation’s six-or-seven-month duration is not adopted as a precise chronology. Neither account is Paquiquineo’s testimony. The February1571 summons is distinct from the1572 demand.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p.110 (1572 letter) and p.119 (later relation).
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, editors; Juan de la Carrera · 1953
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: V · Risen from the Dead
Juan Baptista de Segura; Luis de Quirós; Gabriel Gómez; Sancho de Zaballos; Pedro Mingot de Linares; Cristóbal Redondo; Gabriel de Solís; Juan Baptista Méndez. Editorial identification, not a quotation from Rogel.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The mission men were killed in February 1571. The twentieth-century editors assembled the membership from surviving records.
Intended audience
Readers comparing the mission’s documentary accounts.
Purpose
To identify the mission members, rather than manufacture a single witness’s roll call.
Point of view
An editorial reconstruction; Rogel’s1572 letter supplies only some names. Carrera’s later account contributes additional identification.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), member list; Juan de la Carrera, Relation, March 1, 1600.
The chief told the boy to stay and he would treat him well and hold him as a son.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general.
Purpose
Report the surviving boy’s account.
Point of view
Rogel was not present during this care. We retain his third-person wording and adult source voice over the silently reconstructed boy.
Juan Rogel to Francis Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis–Loomie (1953), pp. 109–111. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/109/mode/1up . p. 110, paragraph 7. Underlying sentence: “The chief told the boy to stay and he would treat him well and hold him as a son.”
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VI · The Account
Captives are promised release for Alonso. Two Native escorts bring the boy.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
The governor’s armed boat holds captives at a different location. A protecting chief sends Alonso directly to the fleet’s port with two men while that boat remains away. We compress geography; we don't adopt Martínez’s 1610 swimming and reunion story.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp. 108–109, paragraphs 2–4. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/108/mode/1up .
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VI · The Account
English translation (1953 edition)
Rogel first describes the governor’s order to take Paquiquineo’s uncle and other leaders as leverage for Alonso’s release. His next sentence reports the capture of the chief and accompanying men. The identification follows this sequence; the letter does not preserve the chief’s personal name. The later account of punishment is a separate source.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Spanish forces returned to the Chesapeake in 1572, seeking the surviving boy and an explanation of the mission’s destruction.
Intended audience
Rogel’s Jesuit superior, Francis Borgia.
Purpose
To report the expedition and explain his participation.
Point of view
Rogel reports capture through gift-giving and coercion. Naming kin makes the pressure on people beyond Paquiquineo visible; the letter is not their account.
Rogel to Borgia, August 28, 1572; Lewis and Loomie translation (1953), pp. 107–112, reproduced by Encyclopedia Virginia. The paragraph beginning with the bound spokesman identifies the uncle.
He is very fluent in the language and had almost forgotten his Spanish.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
Rogel describes Alonso’s acquired language. It does not license an invented accent, halting-Spanish performance, numerical age or reason for choosing the Jesuits.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 111, paragraph 9; exact sentence. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/111/mode/1up .
By way of farewell, the pilot steered the ship towards land with the excuse that he wanted to speak to them, and then he ordered a blast from the arquebuses into the group of Indians who were standing crowded together on the shore. I believe many of them were killed, and this was done without any knowledge of mine until it happened. Then we returned to this port.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
The intervention occurs at the armed boat before the pilot’s farewell volley at the stream. Rogel says he did not know about the volley until it happened. He estimates deaths; we give no number. The letter says the five-day promise is still pending and does not report hangings.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 109, paragraph 5, and pp. 110–111, paragraph 8. Spanish pp. 104–106. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/109/mode/1up .
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VI · The Account
Menéndez threatens the captives unless Paquiquineo and his two brothers are brought in.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
No own-words Menéndez letter about this demand has been found. Rogel reports it in third person. No precise deadline belongs in a fabricated governor quotation; the chief’s five-day promise and Carrera’s later three-day governor deadline remain distinct.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp. 110–111, paragraph 8.
Juan de la Carrera; Juan Rogel’s relation as edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero; our paraphrase · 1600
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VI · The Account
Father Rogel, with the assistance of Alonso, who served as interpreter, catechized and baptized them, after which they were hanged from the rigging of the Governor's ship.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
These later accounts supply events absent from the still-waiting 1572 letter. Carrera says Rogel baptized the captives; the edited relation adds Alonso interpreting. Spanish and translated counts differ, so no exact count is used. No execution visuals. The narration states the source/time transition aloud.
Juan de la Carrera, Relation, 1 March 1600, Lewis–Loomie pp. 138–139; Relation of Juan Rogel, c. 1607–1611, as edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero, pp. 120–121, Spanish p. 117. Carrera: https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/relation-of-juan-de-la-carrera-march-1-1600/ . Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/120/mode/1up .
Our synthesis from Spanish expedition records and Percy · 1572–1607
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VI · The Account; VII · Another Arrival
Paquiquineo was not brought to the governor; his later fate is unknown. Spain established no further Chesapeake colony in this period. English ships arrived in 1607.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
The empty shore represents a limit of surviving evidence. Thirty-five years is 1607 minus 1572, not a claim that named witnesses remembered the reprisal or caused the Cape Henry attack.
Lewis–Loomie (1953), p. 56 and documents pp. 110–111, 138–139, 166ff., 193–199, 209ff. Later reconnaissance is documented; “no colony” does not mean “no later ships.” Percy, Observations, Purchas (1625), IV:1686, supplies the English arrival in April 1607.
Our synthesis using the AP U.S. History CED · 1491–1607
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
Curriculum synthesis: CED KC-1.2.I.B links American mineral wealth to the European shift from feudalism to capitalism; KC-1.2.I.C links organized commerce and joint-stock companies to economic change. This was an uneven process, not an instant replacement of landholding, and we make no quantitative claim that a particular Spanish receipt directly funded the Virginia Company.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The Virginia Company’s 1606 venture sits within expanding maritime commerce and organized investment.
Intended audience
Viewers studying causation.
Purpose
Distinguish mechanisms from a claim that one voyage instantly created capitalism.
Point of view
This is a modern synthesis. American crops and mineral wealth and organized trade contributed to a long European shift; feudal relationships did not vanish on one date.
College Board, AP U.S. History Course and Exam Description, Fall 2026, Topic 1.7 review, KC-1.2.I.B–C. No primary participant is quoted.
or which are not now actually possessed by any Christian Prince or People
Sourcing
Historical situation
Royal authorization for settlement in inhabited North America.
Intended audience
The named patentees and English officials.
Purpose
Authorize colonial ventures through royal and Christian categories of possession.
Point of view
The clause does not say the land is uninhabited. It measures exclusion by Christian political possession rather than Native sovereignty. The narrator’s interpretation is separate from the exact quoted clause.
First Charter of Virginia, 10 April 1606, Hening I:57–66, reprinted in Francis N. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions (1909), VII:3782. No invented signature or seal.
Virginia Company council; staged reading by Christopher Newport · 1606
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
make Choise of that which bendeth most towards the northwest for that way shall You soonest find the other Sea
Sourcing
Historical situation
English planners imagine a river route across North America.
Intended audience
Captains and company sent to Virginia.
Purpose
Direct reconnaissance toward a hoped-for passage.
Point of view
The words express imperial geographical ambition, not a surveyed route or accurate distance. Newport’s performance is staged; his RIGHT arm is absent and the text is held in his left hand.
Instructions given by way of advice (1606), Thomas Jefferson Papers, Series 8, Library of Congress, manuscript p. 1; exact cut in Encyclopedia Virginia’s partly modernized transcription. Compared directly 4 October 2026. It reads “towards”, “shall You” and “Sea”.
The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture
Helen C. Rountree · 1989
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
Editorial summary, not a quotation: by 1607, about twenty-eight to thirty-two groups, each with its own chief, paid tribute to the paramount chief Wahunsenacah (the English called him Powhatan). Together they made up Tsenacommacah, the Powhatan chiefdom of the Virginia tidewater.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A 1989 university-press study of the traditional culture of the Powhatan Indians of Virginia.
Intended audience
Scholars and general readers of Virginia Indian history.
Purpose
To describe the traditional Powhatan way of life: its towns, farming, government and tribute.
Point of view
A modern anthropologist. Most of the written evidence for 1607 was recorded by English colonists, so any modern account has to read them against their own aims.
Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989).
George Percy; our paraphrase · 30 April 1607 / printed 1625
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
At Kecoughtan, hosts offer the visitors maize bread and places on their mats.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The visitors travel from Cape Comfort to Kecoughtan four days after the Cape Henry arrival.
Intended audience
Purchas’s English readers in 1625.
Purpose
Describe the voyage and encounters.
Point of view
An English observer records Native hospitality. No women planting are shown: that would require Smith’s separately dated general description, not Percy’s visit.
George Percy, Observations, in Samuel Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes (1625), IV:1687; April sequence beginning “Thirtieth day”. Encyclopedia Virginia transcription compared directly 4 October 2026.
of their bread which they make of their Maiz or Gennea wheat, they would not suffer us to eat unlesse we sate down
Sourcing
Historical situation
A meal at Kecoughtan, 30 April, not May 1607.
Intended audience
English readers of Purchas.
Purpose
Recount how the hosts fed and seated the visitors.
Point of view
Spelling is retained from the chosen transcription. The staged on-camera reading is not a claim he recited the account at the meal. His terms for maize are reported vocabulary; the narration calls it maize bread.
Percy, Observations, Purchas his Pilgrimes (1625), IV:1687. Exact contiguous cut in Encyclopedia Virginia’s transcription, beginning after “&” and ending before “which we did”. Compared directly 4 October 2026.
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
Atlantic voyages expanded commerce and imperial power through new connections, disease and exploitation. Yet newcomers depended on Native food and knowledge. Hospitality, negotiation and resistance shaped what empires could achieve.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A causal conclusion across the chapters, not a claim supported by one meal alone.
Intended audience
Students practicing a historically defensible claim.
Purpose
Explain mechanisms while limiting claims of inevitable or complete European control.
Point of view
No inference about Paquiquineo’s private motive or a specific cause of the Cape Henry attack is licensed.
CED Topic 1.7 learning objective G and KC-1.2.I–III; evidence in earlier chapters for transatlantic exchange, disease and coerced labor. Quirós–Segura 1570 letter for dependence and exchange. Rogel 1572 for mission failure. Virginia Company instructions 1606 for imperial ambitions. Percy, Purchas IV:1687, for Kecoughtan hospitality.
Responses that do not earn this point: • Are not historically defensible. • Only restate or rephrase the prompt. • Do not respond to the prompt. • Do not establish a line of reasoning. • Are overgeneralized.
Examples that do not earn this point: Provide a historically defensible claim, but do not establish a line of reasoning • “The United States gained a lot of territory during this period.”
Examples that earn this point: Establish a line of reasoning • “From 1865 to 1910 the United States expanded its role in the world because of the belief in manifest destiny.” (Minimally acceptable thesis/claim)
Sourcing
Historical situation
Part of the sample Document-Based Question scoring guidelines that the College Board prints in the AP U.S. History Course and Exam Description. The sample prompt asks about the causes of the expanding role of the United States in the world, 1865 to 1910; the Row A rules apply to every AP essay's thesis point.
Intended audience
AP exam readers scoring essays, and the teachers and students who study the published guidelines.
Purpose
To define what earns the thesis point: a defensible claim that also gives a reason, or sorts the argument into categories. A true statement with no reasoning does not count.
Point of view
The College Board's exam designers. The example sentence is about the United States, 1865 to 1910; we borrow only the rule, that a claim must give a reason someone could argue with.
College Board, AP U.S. History Course and Exam Description, Course Framework V.1 (2026), Sample Exam Questions, Scoring Guidelines for the Document-Based Question, Row A: Thesis/Claim, printed p. 532 (PDF p. 539).
Optional short-answer practice: what did the voyages change?
Study exercise · Modern study exercise
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
Use a specific example in each part and explain the relationship it supports. Open the linked practice page to write, download or print your responses and review evidence guidance. This is an original exercise, not a released College Board question or an automatic AP score.
A: Identify a specific environmental or demographic change, such as epidemic losses or livestock changing land use. B: Connect silver, expanding trade or pooled investment to an economic consequence in Europe; avoid claiming an instant transformation of every institution. C: Show how Native negotiation, hospitality, withdrawal or resistance affected what newcomers could do. Do not invent Paquiquineo’s private motives.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Modern review of effects of transatlantic voyages during Period 1.
Intended audience
AP U.S. History students.
Purpose
Practice specific evidence and causal explanation in brief written responses.
Point of view
A teaching exercise based on the cited record and APUSH Unit 1, rather than a historical witness or an official examination item.
Original p1-05 practice exercise; curriculum alignment to AP U.S. History Course and Exam Description, Topic 1.7 and Unit 1 key concepts. Historical evidence appears in the source cards.
Modern teaching argument
Build a causal claim and test its limits
Our editorial synthesis · 1491–1607 · modern argument workshop
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
On screen: VII · Another Arrival
A model argument, not a historical quotation or the only valid thesis. CED KC-1.2 connects voyages, resources, disease, labor institutions and Native responses. Rogel's mediated 1572 account establishes the mission's destruction, not Paquiquineo's private motive. The 1606 Virginia Company instructions reveal plans that depended on Native food and guides. These sources support expanded imperial power but contradict complete, uniform control. A narrower environmental or demographic thesis could also be defensible if it explains its mechanism and limits. Merely saying that trade changed everything does neither.
Sourcing
Historical situation
An optional activity after the dramatic ending.
Intended audience
APUSH students practicing causation and argumentation.
Purpose
Distinguish examples, explanatory mechanisms and defensible limits.
Point of view
Modern interpretation; not a verdict on a historical person's hidden motives.
Europeans learned about many new plants and foods, including beans, corn, sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. These food items transformed the diet of people throughout Eurasia and touched off rapid population growth in regions from Ireland to West Africa to eastern China.
People in the Americas learned about sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses, as well as new technology, such as the wheel, iron implements, and guns. But while the Columbian Exchange led to population growth in Europe, Africa, and Asia, it had the opposite effect in the Americas. Native Americans had no immunity to the germs and the diseases brought by Europeans, such as smallpox and measles. In Mexico, the native population declined from around 22 million in 1492 to around 4 million by the mid-16th century.
To finance trade voyages more safely, Europeans developed a new type of enterprise, the joint-stock company, a business owned by a large number of investors. If a voyage failed, investors lost only what they had invested.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A commercial AP U.S. History textbook, revised to follow the course framework's Period 1 (1491 to 1607) topic by topic. The passages here come from its Columbian Exchange, capitalism and joint-stock company sections.
Intended audience
High-school AP students preparing for the exam, and their teachers.
Purpose
To summarize what the course expects students to know: the exchange of crops, animals and diseases, population change, and new ways of financing voyages.
Point of view
Two textbook authors summarizing widely used scholarship for a national exam. Its Mexican population figures (about 22 million in 1492, about 4 million by the mid-1500s) are one estimate among several, which is why we show them as a range.
John J. Newman and John M. Schmalbach, United States History: AP Edition (AMSCO / Perfection Learning, 4th ed., 2020), Topic 1.4, printed pp. 15–16. Charter dates in the joint-stock card (Muscovy Company, 1555; East India Company, December 31, 1600) come from Encyclopaedia Britannica.
there wee landed and discouered a little way, but wee could find nothing worth the speaking of, but faire meddowes and goodly tall Trees, with such Fresh-waters running through the woods, as I was almost rauished at the first sight thereof.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Percy witnessed the April 26, 1607 arrival. The surviving version is Purchas's 1625 abridgment; Percy's manuscript is lost.
Intended audience
English readers of Purchas's collection of voyages, eighteen years after the landing.
Purpose
Describe the voyage, landscape and encounters from an English participant's perspective.
Point of view
An English gentleman colonist. His pleasure and danger are testimony to his experience, not evidence of the shore's emptiness or the attackers' motives. The face and delivery are reconstructed.
George Percy, 'Observations gathered out of a Discourse of the Plantation of the Southerne Colonie in Virginia by the English, 1606,' in Samuel Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes (London, 1625), part 4, book 9, chapter 2, p. 1686; archive.org purchaspilgrimes04, scan leaf n553. This is not Tyler's regularized 1907 text.
That You be not Surprised as the french were in florida by Melindus and the Spaniard in the same place by the french
Sourcing
Historical situation
Instructions prepared for the first landing; the planners already know earlier imperial ventures.
Intended audience
Captains and company sent to Virginia.
Purpose
Guard against hostile surprise and locate a defensible settlement.
Point of view
Newport did not author these words; his reading is reconstructed. “Melindus” names Menéndez. This document is distinct from the sealed box naming the council. Awareness of Spanish-French conflict does not prove knowledge of Ajacán or explain Native motives at Cape Henry.
Instructions given by way of advice (1606), Thomas Jefferson Papers, Series 8, Library of Congress, manuscript p. 2; exact contiguous cut in Encyclopedia Virginia’s partly modernized transcription, from “That” through the second “french”. Compared directly 4 October 2026.
When the chief stood in the presence of the Admiral and saw Father Rogel and Brother Villareal and me dressed like those whom they had slain, he was thunderstruck and thought we had risen from the dead. The Admiral told him to bring him Don Luis in three days; if not, they would all be killed. … Since he did not come back at the appointed time, he hanged them all from the yardarms of the ship. Previously Father Rogel had baptized the chief and his men. (p. 139)
Sourcing
Historical situation
A captive chief sees Jesuit clothing after the deaths of the earlier missionaries.
Intended audience
Bartolomé Pérez, S.J.
Purpose
Recount the mission and reprisal expedition
Point of view
Carrera was present in 1572 but writes 28 years later. He interprets the captive chief’s reaction; this is not the chief’s own surviving account. His three-day demand must remain distinct from Rogel’s five-day promise.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p.139.
Instructions by way of Advice for the Intended Voyage to Virginia
The Council for Virginia (Virginia Company of London), for the first settlers · 1606
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
When it shall please God to send you on the coast of Virginia, you shall do your best endeavour to find out a safe port in the entrance of some navigable river, making choice of such a one as runneth farthest into the land, and if you happen to discover divers portable rivers, and amongst them any one that hath two main branches, if the difference be not great, make choice of that which bendeth most toward the North-west for that way you shall soonest find the other sea.
When you have made choice of the river on which you mean to settle, be not hasty in landing your victuals and munitions; but first let Captain Newport discover how far that river may be found navigable, that you [may] make election of the strongest, most wholesome and fertile place.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Written in London in 1606, as the Virginia Company's Council prepared its first three ships (they sailed just before Christmas 1606). It backed the April 1606 royal charter with practical orders for the landing.
Intended audience
The captains and council of the first colony, to be read on their first landing in Virginia.
Purpose
To tell the settlers where and how to plant: find a defensible river, look for the water route the Company hoped led to 'the other sea,' and keep the investors' hopes of mines and trade alive.
Point of view
Investors and officials in London who had never seen the Chesapeake. They hoped a river would lead to the Pacific; the real distance was thousands of miles. Native Virginians appear in the text as trading partners and possible enemies, not as owners of the land.
Instructions by way of advice, for the intended voyage to Virginia (1606), Library of Congress, Records of the Virginia Company of London; modernized text as printed in E. D. Neill, History of the Virginia Company of London (Albany, 1869), p. 8, and in Edward Arber, ed., Travels and Works of Captain John Smith (Birmingham, 1884). Spelling is modernized, and the manuscript itself reads 'towards the northwest'.
Editorial synthesis of the New Laws, Nahua accounts and historical research · Mexico · 1520–1566
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation by Henry Stevens (1893 edition)
The timeline stays in Mexico: preconquest Tenochtitlan; smallpox in 1520; colonial tribute and labor demands; the New Laws of 1542 and their limits; the 1545–1548 epidemic. Paquiquineo's 1562–1566 residence. The New Laws barred new Indigenous enslavement and limited encomienda grants and succession. Colonial resistance weakened implementation; provisions on inheritance were rolled back in 1545. Restrictions did not abolish all coerced labor. Multiple epidemic episodes and continuing colonial extraction are distinct mechanisms acting over time. We neither diagnose the cause of Paquiquineo's illness nor claim he saw an earlier epidemic. We assign no population total and no settled pathogen to cocoliztli. The quoted VO is original teaching prose, not a royal sentence. The New Laws are placed within debate over colonial abuses; we distinguish reform language from uneven enforcement. See CED KC-1.2.III.C and the cited New Laws text.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The named 2002 study was opened to confirm the 1545–1548 dates, not to import its population estimates or pathogen hypothesis.
Intended audience
Students testing whether one event can explain decades of change in a single region.
Purpose
Distinguish repeated epidemics, continuing coercion and incomplete legal reform; support an explanation with more than one causal mechanism.
Point of view
A modern comparison combines sources made for different purposes. Colonial law states intent; Nahua testimony records experience; later scholarship reconstructs chronology. No Andean mita or Potosí event belongs on this Mexico timeline.
New Laws (1542), trans. Henry Stevens (1893), https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/mod/1542newlawsindies.asp; Rodolfo Acuña-Soto et al., “Megadrought and Megadeath in 16th Century Mexico,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, no. 4 (2002): 360–362, https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/8/4/01-0175_article. Paquiquineo dates: opening route card.
Diego de Camargo, expedition secretary and notary · August 14, 1566
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation by L. A. Vigneras (1969 edition)
The contrary wind, very strong, lasted four full days.
Sourcing
Historical situation
La Trinidad anchors at a river mouth reported at 37 degrees 30 minutes. The log attributes its identification as his territory to Don Luis. Before soundings can be completed, contrary wind forces the ship offshore.
Intended audience
Spanish officials receiving the expedition's certified record.
Purpose
To attest to the expedition's navigation and circumstances.
Point of view
The expedition's own notary records the weather and attributes information to its guide. This documents a reported obstacle; it does not reveal the guide's private motive or independently certify the latitude.
Vigneras, 'A Spanish Discovery of North Carolina in 1566,' North Carolina Historical Review 46, no. 4 (1969), p. 411; August 14 log, signed Diego de Camargo, reprinted by Encyclopedia Virginia.
Diego de Camargo, expedition secretary and notary · August 24, 1566
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation by L. A. Vigneras (1969 edition)
After the contrary wind subsided, the pilot brought La Trinidad into a river recorded at 36 degrees. The expedition did explore and land farther south; it did not enter the Chesapeake Bay it had been sent to reach.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The voyage continues after the earlier forced withdrawal. A subsequent August 25 entry describes Coronas's landing and claim of possession.
Intended audience
Spanish officials evaluating the expedition.
Purpose
To certify the pilot's actions and the expedition's acts.
Point of view
An official record distinguishes an actual river entry from completion of the northern mission. Calling the voyage a failure must not erase its southern landing.
Vigneras, North Carolina Historical Review 46, no. 4 (1969), pp. 411–412, log of August 24; compare August 25 on p. 412. We paraphrase; we don't identify the precise modern inlet from the stated latitude alone.
Carrera recalls warning Quirós, then giving him the goods
Brother Juan de la Carrera, to Bartolomé Pérez, S.J. · Written 1600 · recalling Santa Elena, 1570
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation by Lewis and Loomie (1953 edition)
When I saw the list I was a little upset and I said to him,
Father, I would gladly give you everything you ask of me, even though I know that it is all going to be lost, were it not for the fact that I know for certain that all this will contribute greatly to the death of everyone going there.
I gave Father Quirós as much as he wanted, and it was the greater part of the best and richest articles that I had in the way of chalices, monstrances, and vestments and other articles besides church furnishings.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Carrera looks back in 1600 on the 1570 preparations at Santa Elena. He recalls Quirós asking for the best church goods and his own warning about the expedition.
Intended audience
A fellow Jesuit, Bartolomé Pérez.
Purpose
To recount the mission's history and explain his remembered reservations and assistance.
Point of view
An involved participant writing about thirty years later, already knowing the outcome. His account misdates the departure year; its remembered warning must not be treated as a contemporary transcript or an objectively certain prediction.
Carrera, Relation, Puebla de los Ángeles, March 1, 1600, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp. 132–133; English reprinted by Encyclopedia Virginia. Both are contiguous cuts with trailing ellipses, not one joined speech.
Luis de Quirós, writing with Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa · September 12, 1570
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation
Quirós reports that the party has consumed two of its four barrels of biscuit during the voyage. The letter records their arrival from Santa Elena and requests prompt food supplies.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The missionaries have arrived at Ajacán with limited food and face the ship's departure.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer in Havana, who can help send provisions.
Purpose
To report the journey and urgent needs and obtain relief.
Point of view
A missionary seeking support explains both the party's decisions and its vulnerability. The food tally is contemporary, but it does not describe a particular Santa Elena packing action.
Quirós and Segura to Hinistrosa, September 12, 1570, Spanish preserved in Buckingham Smith's 1889 transcription; Lewis and Loomie (1953), pp. 89–91, especially p. 90, paragraph 3. Compare the Spanish transcription and Susan M. Smith's separate translation at Encyclopedia Virginia. This card paraphrases; no blended English quotation is used.
Luis de Quirós; our paraphrase · September 12, 1570
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
Of four biscuit barrels, two have already been consumed on the voyage.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Juan de Hinistrosa, royal treasurer at Havana.
Purpose
Report the mission’s circumstances and seek material support.
Point of view
A supply report requesting help. Four physical casks, two empty, are an illustrative reconstruction; the source establishes consumption, not their unloading arrangement.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 90, paragraph 3: “on our trip we have consumed two of the four barrels of biscuit”. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/90/mode/1up .
Our historical inference from the expedition log and the 1570 letter · 1566 and 1570
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation by L. A. Vigneras (1969 edition)
This time the ship found the bay. That does not prove why the voyage of fifteen sixty-six failed.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Ajacán and the Chesapeake, 1570–1572.
Intended audience
Viewers.
Purpose
Revisit c02 without converting suspicion into fact.
Point of view
This is an evidentiary limit, not a primary quotation or verdict on sabotage.
Diego de Camargo, La Trinidad log, 14 and 24 August 1566, trans. L. A. Vigneras, North Carolina Historical Review 46 (1969), pp. 411–412. Quirós–Segura letter, 12 September 1570, Lewis–Loomie p. 89. The 24 August entry: https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/la-trinidad-expedition-log-august-24-1566/ .
The Account: reconstruction from separate written accounts
Our reconstruction from Rogel, Carrera and later edited testimony · sources 1572, 1600, c. 1611
Dramatization. Dramatized, based on the record.
Background: not shown on screen.
A reconstructed encounter based on written accounts. No surviving source documents this cabin interview.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
The room, simultaneous seating and viewer’s questioning are teaching devices. Rogel is implicated in the enterprise. The protecting chief, the captive chief and Paquiquineo must not be collapsed into one person. No choice rewrites coercion or controls punishment.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp. 108–112. Carrera, Relation, 1 March 1600, pp. 138–139. Rogel’s relation edited by Juan Sánchez Vaquero, c. 1607–1611, pp. 118–121.
The captive chief reports the chalice’s destination
Our adaptation of the captive chief’s statement as reported by Juan Rogel · August 28, 1572
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
Don Luis gave the silver chalice to an important chief inland.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
This is an adaptation into the reported speaker’s voice; “inland” paraphrases “in the interior.” Rogel says the chief told him, without establishing that Alonso translated this statement. The chalice is inland, not on the cabin table.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 111, paragraph 11. Underlying wording: “The captured chief told me that Don Luis gave the silver chalice to an important chief in the interior.”.
We are keeping this boy with us. He is very fluent in the language and had almost forgotten his Spanish. After he was freed from his captivity, we asked him if he wished to be with us, or go with his father who is also here. He said that he wanted to be with us only.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general.
Purpose
Report Alonso’s stated preference.
Point of view
The adult Rogel reads his own third-person report over a silently reconstructed Alonso. The preference is evidence of a reported choice, not its private reason or proof that the boy felt no affection for his carers.
Juan Rogel to Francis Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p. 111. We don't combine the later Martínez reunion story with this account.
Juan Rogel (1572) and Juan de la Carrera (1600); our comparison · August 28, 1572 / 1 March 1600
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
In Rogel, the chief promises five days. Carrera, writing in 1600, gives the governor three. The accounts do not establish one harmonized deadline.
Sourcing
Historical situation
The armed Spanish expedition in the Chesapeake in August 1572; Rogel writes while a threatened punishment is still pending.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general; later relations have their own later readers.
Purpose
Report the mission’s fate, the boy’s return and the expedition’s actions.
Point of view
Five days is the chief’s promise in a contemporary letter. Three days is the governor’s deadline in a witness’s recollection written twenty-eight years later. No invented countdown joins the accounts. Neither proves Paquiquineo heard or consciously refused the 1572 demand.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis and Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp. 110–111, paragraph 8. Juan de la Carrera to Bartolomé Pérez, Relation, Puebla, 1 March 1600, p. 139. Carrera text: https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/relation-of-juan-de-la-carrera-march-1-1600/ .
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
The route imagined by the English crossed places where Native societies already lived.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A schematic counterpoint to the instructions’ westward ambitions.
Intended audience
Viewers.
Purpose
Reveal people and different regional societies beneath an imagined route.
Point of view
No false empty continent, modern nation-state boundaries or invented 1607 survey. Chesapeake specifics must be placed accurately; continent-wide examples illustrate diversity. Approximately 2,500 miles, if retained by the builder, means continental east–west breadth near this latitude, not the Gulf of California.
CED KC-1.1.I.A–D and KC-1.2.III.B. Virginia Company instructions, 1606: https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/instructions-from-the-virginia-company-of-london-to-the-first-settlers-1606/ . This card supports the placeholder invitation only.
Rogel distances himself from the pilot’s shore volley
Juan Rogel · August 28, 1572
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
Background: not shown on screen.
English translation, 1953
this was done without any knowledge of mine until it happened.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Rogel reports the pilot’s volley at the stream, after his own earlier intervention against firing on two steersmen; the letter still awaits the chief’s five-day promise.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general.
Purpose
Describe and delimit his knowledge of an act of violence on the expedition.
Point of view
This is Rogel’s claim about his own knowledge. neither erase that act nor cast him as a moral hero. The line does not refer to the later hangings.
Rogel to Borgia, 28 August 1572, Lewis–Loomie (1953), p. 109, paragraph 5. Scan: https://archive.org/details/spanishjesuitmis00lewi/page/109/mode/1up .
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
Paraphrase of the August 24 log. Camargo records the pilot Domingo Fernández's actions and the territorial description attributed to Don Luis. This is a narrow account of one stage of the voyage. It cannot tell us every decision, what all participants understood, or whether the guide intended to mislead anyone. The pilot is Domingo Fernández, not the pilot associated with the 1570 mission.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A Spanish expedition searching the Atlantic coast for Don Luis's homeland.
Intended audience
Expedition officials and royal readers of the record.
Purpose
Certify what the notary reports the pilot did.
Point of view
Official Spanish record; Don Luis appears in reported speech.
L. A. Vigneras, 'A Spanish Discovery of North Carolina in 1566,' North Carolina Historical Review 46, no. 4 (1969), 411–412; reprinted by Encyclopedia Virginia.
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
Paraphrase. Abalia bases his explanation on what he understood from the people who arrived aboard the vessel. He reports departure from San Mateo and describes the return after a hurricane. He refers to additional expedition records. His letter establishes a reported weather explanation and the failed return, not a complete account of every decision. It does not state that the friars forced Coronas to sail against the pilot's advice. Compare the August 1 orders, which assigned authority to Coronas and superiority to Fray Pablo, and the August 24 log.
Sourcing
Historical situation
La Trinidad has arrived in Cádiz without accomplishing the mission.
Intended audience
The Council of Indies.
Purpose
Report the arrival and forward records about the expedition.
Point of view
An official reporting what arriving participants told him, not an eyewitness aboard the expedition.
Vigneras, 'A Spanish Discovery of North Carolina in 1566' (1969), 414; Encyclopedia Virginia transcription.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés · August 1, 1566 · Fort San Mateo
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
Paraphrase. Menéndez locates Don Luis's country by a reported latitude range and repeats assurances about friends, brothers and conversion. The order appoints Pedro de Coronas captain and gives Fray Pablo de San Pedro superior authority. It was dated at Fort San Mateo, not Havana. Don Luis's reported promises establish the expedition's reliance on him; they do not establish his private intentions or prove that subsequent failure was deliberate.
Sourcing
Historical situation
A proposed northern religious and military foothold in 1566.
Intended audience
Coronas, expedition officers, friars and soldiers.
Purpose
Authorize the expedition and define command.
Point of view
An imperial official describing expectations; the Native guide's own account is absent.
Vigneras, 'A Spanish Discovery of North Carolina in 1566' (1969), 408–409; Encyclopedia Virginia transcription.
Regional Native diversity beneath an imagined passage
Our synthesis from the APUSH CED, Monacan Indian Nation and Virginia sources · Around 1607 · modern reconstruction
Adapted. Shortened, or spelled the modern way. Same meaning.
Background: not shown on screen.
Modern reconstruction. CED KC-1.1.I.A–D supports the Southwest, Great Basin/western Plains, eastern/river-valley, Northwest coast and California comparisons. The Monacan Indian Nation's tribal history describes an agricultural Siouan-speaking people west of the Tidewater, including crops and exchange. Rountree and Percy's 1607 account support the Chesapeake material. The eastern-interior point introduces a broad comparison; it is not a Monacan town coordinate. The Pacific point introduces Northwest coast and California differences, not a single culture. No country polygons or Native borders are used. The equirectangular projection covers 136°W–60°W and 16°N–60°N. A separate schematic arrow expresses the Virginia Company's northwestward search; it is neither a river nor a completed transcontinental route.
Sourcing
Historical situation
English plans for an inland route encountered inhabited land.
Intended audience
Students comparing regional adaptations and colonial ambitions.
Purpose
Make dependency on Native food, guides and political relationships visible.
Point of view
Modern teaching reconstruction with broad regional anchors. Tribal history supplements colonial accounts.
APUSH CED, KC-1.1.I.A–D. Monacan Indian Nation, Our History. Rountree (1989). Percy (1607). Virginia Company instructions (1606).
The King. To our Governor of the island of Cuba or your lieutenant in the said office. Father Juan Baptista de Segura has written that some Religious of the Company of Jesus and certain catechists and Don Luis de Velasco, an Indian, ten persons in all, had reached the provinces of Florida where they had been obtaining great fruit in the instruction and conversion of the natives there … it is my will that the said Religious and persons with them be provided with food, and I command that, as soon as you see to this, you order that there be sent … such maize as you deem necessary for their food and support … Done at Madrid, on the nineteenth of February, fifteen hundred and seventy one. I The King
Sourcing
Historical situation
The mission’s killings preceded the order by days; the appeal had crossed the Atlantic months before.
Intended audience
Governor of Cuba or his lieutenant
Purpose
Order maize for the mission
Point of view
A royal directive states what should be supplied. Its date does not prove when news was received or that food arrived. We never assert the king knew or did not know of the killings.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp.95–97. English p.96. The source order answers Segura’s September1570 appeal; chronology is compared with Rogel’s account of February1571.
This boy then told Don Luis to bury them since he had killed them, and at least in their burial, he was kind to them.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Rogel writes about events he did not witness in February1571.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general
Purpose
Report the mission’s deaths and the surviving boy’s account
Point of view
Third-person testimony relayed by a Jesuit, not a surviving transcript by Alonso. “Kind” is Rogel’s formulation in this translation; no motive or absolution is inferred.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), p.110.
A Jesuit describes punishment and a further threat
Juan Rogel · August 28, 1572
Verbatim. The original words, unchanged.
Background: not shown on screen.
This chastisement has become famous throughout the land, and if this further one is done, it will be all the more famous.
Sourcing
Historical situation
Rogel writes while captives await a threatened punishment.
Intended audience
Francis Borgia, Jesuit superior general
Purpose
Report the armed expedition and prospects for a mission
Point of view
The shore volley already occurred. The letter’s further punishment is pending. Rogel’s approving formulation is evidence of his perspective, not proof of an independently measured response across the land.
Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (1953), pp.110–111, paragraph8.
Advanced Placement